Sources and citations in law and criminology

Guidelines for referencing sources during exams at the Faculty of Law

Your work should be a product of your own thinking and convey your own reflections on the topic at hand. However, supporting your claims with the opinions of other authors and building on arguments of others will usually be central to any academic paper.

In order to write an academic paper, it is essential that you use sources correctly. An otherwise well written text would not convey the necessary credibility and academic integrity if sources are not used effectively and properly cited.

Whenever you summarize, paraphrase or directly quote another author, you must cite the relevant bibliographic data in an appropriate citation style (see below). The field of law especially relies heavily on citing authoritative legal texts (the “black letter” law) and on the opinions of authorities on legal theory, which makes it all the more important to be precise when you cite your sources.

If you do not follow these guidelines you may be suspected of cheating. This can result in annulment and/or expulsion.

Citing sources during short take-home exams (4-6 hours) and school exams

During short take-home exams (4-6 hours) and school exams you can reference in a simpler way.

It is not possible to use footnotes when writing your exam answers directly into the Inspera exam system, so references to sources must be made directly in the text. A simple reference in the text or in parentheses after the statement or quotation, where you state the author's name, title of the work, and year of publication, is sufficient, for example, like this:

Hjelmeng (2015) states that the basic economic theories...
“According to the theory of harm relied on by the NCA, the change in the access price structure had an adverse impact on the access buyer’s incentives to keep up the development pace of the network.” (Foros and Hjelmeng, 2022)
“[W]hen you cite sources fully and accurately, you sustain and enrich the sense of community that gives written research both its scholarly and social value.” (Booth et.al. “The Craft of Research”, 2016)

In the examples, direct quotes are highlighted using quotation marks, but you may also use bold letters or italics. Just make sure you are consistent throughout your text. You do not need a bibliography / list of sources (unless otherwise stated). The same applies to open-book tests.

In a school exam where you have limited access to reference materials, it is not expected that you can provide citations to sources you do not have available. In such cases, it is sufficient to use more general phrases if you want to refer to viewpoints in theory and other sources, for example:

In theory, it is assumed that...
This was a long-standing issue in the theory, where, for example, author A argued that B due to C, but the Supreme Court has now clarified that D is the case, stating that...

General guidelines for all other forms of written exams (termpaper, home-exam and masterthesis)

It is essentially up to you and your personal preferences when choosing a citation style, although much also depends on subject specific traditions and the intended audience. If you are writing for publication in a scientific journal, the journal often stipulates the use of a certain citation style. Your course may also require that you use a specific citation style, so be sure to check the course overview page and semester page before you start writing.

Frequently used citation styles such as Harvard and Chicago footnotes are suitable for legal writing. In Criminology, the Harvard citation style is most commonly used. In general, a note and bibliography-system is more commonly used in academic legal writing, but there is no hard and fast rule here. For legal writing specifically, OSCOLA and Bluebook are widely used systems, especially in Britain and the US. Other countries usually have their own conventions for citing legal materials, but when writing for an international audience you should try to make your citations available to international readers. This may mean adjusting the citation style to make it easier for international readers to access the source materials. Remember: The point of citing correctly and in a consistent style is to make it easy for your readers to access the sources on which you build your argument.

Sources and citations in law and criminology

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